Tangentium

January '04: Menu

• This month's introduction
• Feature essay 1: Language Engineering
• Feature essay 2: The Digital Learning Divide
• Supplementary essay 1: Electronic Text Technologies
• Supplementary essay 2: Language, knowledge and exclusion
• Key terms defined
• Snippets
• Reviewed links and resources
• Main menu

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ISSN number: 1746-4757

Feature Essay: The Digital Learning Divide - responding to the access needs of citizens

Gerry McAleavy, Tony Donegan and Celia O'Hagan

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Poverty, Exclusion and Access

Increases in part-time work and wage inequalities have been among some of the reasons for a greater dispersion of ‘working poor’. In 1995-96 there were twice as many poor children in working families than in 1979. In 2000-01, 21% of children in the UK lived in households with below 60% of median income before housing costs, 31% after housing costs [8].

While poverty and exclusion have existed throughout history, there are strong indications that modern developments in accessibility - through both the growth of private transport and the use of information technology - enhance possibilities for some sections of the population but increase the disadvantages of others. In order to participate in society, to purchase goods, manage finance, obtain work, become educated, access health facilities or even to make friends, citizens require the capacity to reach out. This is acquired either through having the possibility to travel or, alternatively, through the use of information and communication technologies to access information services and resources [9]. Without these means of access, communities are increasingly losing control over their living environments as capacities for gaining access to the necessities of life are being differentially distributed across real and virtual space.

An example of the way in which citizens can be deprived of access is the fact that, while Northern Ireland is a major agricultural producer, capacity to purchase affordable fresh food has become a problem for disadvantaged communities both in urban and even rural areas. Research by the Armagh and Dungannon Health Action Zone [10] revealed that low income households would have to spend 25% more of their disposable income on food if they could not access a superstore or street markets. The increasing movement of supermarkets to out-of town locations has led to the creation of ‘food deserts’. Since cheap and varied food is only available to those who have access to private transport and/or can access supermarket web sites to order food, the health of disadvantaged populations is likely to be at risk. The negative effects of such exclusion has been charted by the Health and Personal and Social Services Department [11]:

“Within Northern Ireland… Inequalities in health can be seen in almost every available health index. Infant death rates are almost 50% higher in the most deprived group of our population compared to the least deprived. …..Inequalities in health persist into adulthood. Men and women of working age in the less well of groups are twice as likely to die prematurely as those who are well off. The electoral wards which have the highest death rates also have the highest levels of deprivation”.

The issue of access includes access to employment opportunities. Exclusion from employment is a major contributor to poverty, but this does not always result from "joblessness". Often there are other "shutters" which disable individuals from entering or re-entering the labour market. Such barriers may include underachievement and low levels of skill attainment or qualifications, particularly competencies in IT. These combine with many other conditions which form impediments that include social, cultural, geographic, political and psychological barriers to employment [12]. For instance, the increasing relocation of workplaces [13] (particularly out of inner city areas) and the resulting migration of workers has meant that individuals and households are less likely to undertake employment unless they have private transport.

Access problems affect other important services as well. The increasing rationalisation of education and health facilities has meant that opportunities for accessing them are also dependent on transport [14]. Peripheral communities also suffer from exclusion from financial services [15]. Financial institutions move out of disadvantaged areas and vendors increasingly require transactions to be made through bank accounts, imposing premiums on purchasers who do not have access to services such as direct debit or electronic ordering. Therefore, increasingly heavy costs are encountered by citizens whose reach has been diminished by decisions taken by large corporate bodies to effectively penalize those who do not have access to IT.

The rapid uptake of internet access has created a situation where around half the population have access to the internet and, similarly, half have access to a car. While further research will be needed to determine the overlap between car owners and internet access, it can be seen that a nation where half the citizens have both physical and virtual access to a vast range of facilities while the other half do not has grave implications for social inclusion and, inevitably the development and sustainability of a more stable and meaningful democracy. European research suggests that economic development supported by ICT is essential for progression towards a globally sustainable work economy [16]. There continues, however, to be pessimism among researchers about the resulting inequalities among marginalized and minority groups. It is suggested that gaps and imbalances among those of poorer communities will increase along with educational disadvantage and the likelihood of a marginalised workforce remains [17].

The advent of virtual networks offers opportunities for communities to become reconstituted if they are able to access further amenities and gain control of available facilities within their own terms. Examples of this approach now follow.

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Footnotes

8. Figures from Shropshire, J. and Middleton, S. (1999) Small Expectations: Learning to be Poor?, York, Joseph Rowntree Foundation. See also Gregory, M. (2002) "Employment and Labour Markets.: Some issues for the New Millenium", International Journal of Manpower 21, 3/2, pp. 160-176. return

9. Kuk, G. (2002) "The digital divide and the quality of electronic service delivery in local government in the United Kingdom", Government Information Quarterly 20, pp. 353–363: Cullen, op. cit.: Gartner Group, op. cit. return

10. Collins et al, op. cit. return

11. McWhirter, L. (ed.) (2002): Health and Social Care in Northern Ireland: A Statistical Profile, Belfast, Department of Health and Personal and Social, Services and Public Safety. return